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Thick-skin-dominated orogens; from initial inversion to full accretion: an introduction

M. Nemčok, A. Mora and J. Cosgrove
Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 377, 1-17, 8 August 2013, https://doi.org/10.1144/SP377.17
M. Nemčok
1Energy and Geoscience Institute at University of Utah, 423 Wakara Way, Suite 300, Salt Lake City, 84108 UT, USA
2Energy and Geoscience Laboratory at Geological Institute of Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dúbravská cesta 9, SK-840 05 Bratislava, Slovakia
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  • For correspondence: mnemcok@egi.utah.edu
A. Mora
3Ecopetrol Instituto Colombiano del Petróleo, Km 7 Autopista Bucaramanga-Piedecuesta, Piedecuesta, Santander, Colombia
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J. Cosgrove
4Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine, Prince Consort Road, London SW7 2AZ, UK
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  • Fig. 1.
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    Fig. 1.

    Plain-strain finite-element model of subduction–collision transition (Beaumont et al. 1999). Retro-lithosphere is fixed. Proto-lithosphere moves as indicated by white arrows. Phase 1: negative buoyancy of the subduction load drives the entire pro-lithosphere subduction. Phase 2: subduction load starts to decrease (increasing buoyancy) either with entrance of continental margin into the pro-lithosphere subduction or with slab break-off. Progressively more pro-lithosphere detaches and doubly vergent deformation begins. Phase 3: pro-lithosphere detaches entirely to form pro-wedge. Continued retro-transport creates a retro-wedge. The main differences among individual phases are controlled by increased buoyancy of proto-lithosphere (i.e. decreased downward flexing under slab pull and/or other forces).

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    Fig. 2.

    (a) Orogens, foredeeps and foreland basins differentiated on the basis of the related subduction; namely systems with orogen advance vector the same as that of mantle flow (west-dipping, left-hand-side diagram) and systems with orogen advance vector opposing that of mantle flow (east or NE-dipping, right-hand-side diagram; Doglioni 1993b). Foredeeps and thick-skin tectonic regions develop at three sides of these two systems: (1) at the front of pro-wedge of the west-dipping subduction system; (2) at the front of pro-wedge of the east or NE-dipping subduction system; and (3) at the front of its retro-wedge. Orogen advance vector is indicated by small arrow and mantle flow is shown by large arrow. Left side shows retreating subduction zone; right side shows advancing subduction zone. (b) Main differences between orogens whose advance vector is the same as that of mantle flow (west-dipping) and orogens whose advance vector opposes that of mantle flow (east or NE-dipping) shown in more detail, using the same geographic orientations as those in (a) (Doglioni 1993b). Orogens with advance vector the same as mantle flow are characterized by low structural and morphological elevation. The rocks occurring at the surface indicate relatively shallow burial. The tangent to the anticlines of the accretionary wedge descends orogen-wards. The depocentre of the deep foredeep basin is within the accretionary wedge. Orogens with advance vector opposite to mantle flow are characterized by high structural and morphological elevation. The rocks occurring at the surface indicate relatively deep burial. The tangent to the anticlines of the accretionary wedge ascends orogen-wards. The depocentre of the shallow foredeep basin is in front of the accretionary wedge. The curves on the right side represent a possible elevation history of a reference point, which was originally located in the foredeep, during development of the respective orogen. The upper curve shows a reference point affected by the migration of three main tectonic events, A, B and C. The foredeep subsidence, A, is driven by roll-back of the subduction hinge and complicated by smaller-scale uplift events associated with individual thrust sheet accretion pulses. The subsidence can be as high as 1.6 mm a−1. It is followed by an uplift, B, controlled by mantle wedging at the top of the subduction hinge, shear and transition from shortening to extension. Segment C of the curves denotes the back-arc basin subsidence. The lower curve shows a reference point affected by migration of the two main tectonic events, D and E. The subsidence, D, is controlled by either thrust loading affecting the foredeep or localized subsidence controlled by out-of-sequence thrusts. The characteristic subsidence is about 0.3 mm a−1. The uplift, E, is controlled by folding.

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    Fig. 3.

    Conceptual interpretation of the two end-member convergence scenarios (Waschbusch & Beaumont 1996). (a) Scenario without subduction zone retreat requires space for crustal accretion to be created by retro-thrusting. (b) Scenario with subduction zone retreat manages to create space for crustal accretion without a need for retro-thrusting.

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    Fig. 4.

    (a) Example of an orogen opposing mantle flow represented by schematic profile through the Swiss–Italian Western Alps from the Mont Tendre in Jura Mountains to the Val Sesia in the Ivrea area (Escher & Beaumont 1997). Convergence drove subduction of the European and Brianconnais lithospheres. The nappe stacking and other deformation events took place within the upper part of the down-going continental crust, while the lower crust has been interpreted as subducting passively together with lithospheric mantle. (b) Example of an orogen following mantle flow represented by balanced cross section through the Western Carpathians accretionary wedge (Nemčok et al. 2006). Convergence drove subduction of the West European lithosphere. Accretionary wedge development and other deformation events took part within upper part of the down-going continental crust, while the lower crust is assumed to be subducting passively together with lithospheric mantle.

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    Fig. 5.

    Regional balanced cross section through the Eastern Cordillera, Colombia with earthquake hypocentres/foci (circles) projected (Ingeominas 2009; Tesón et al. 2013).

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    Fig. 6.

    Structural map and line-drawing interpretation of seismic sections showing variation in structural style in the Broad Fourteens basin as a consequence of development of the Zechstein salt horizon (modified from Nalpas et al. 1995).

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    Fig. 7.

    External and internal factors controlling orogenic deformation (Ellis & Beaumont 1999). (a) Velocity conditions contain pro-mantle lithosphere converging and subducting at uniform velocity vp and retro-mantle converging at uniform velocity vR. Mantle subduction point S moves with velocity vS. Its positive v. negative values represent subduction zone advance v. retreat. (b) Internal model properties include rheologies of deforming layers, detachment horizons, intrusions and inherited strength contrasts. (c) External factors include erosion and deposition modifying the load distribution. Thickened crust grows against increasing gravity resistance because of its increasing potential energy. Loads and thickened layers are flexurally compensated by paired broken elastic beams below the model layer.

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    Fig. 8.

    Locations of study areas of Special Publication contributions on (a) South American, (b) Asian, (c) African and (d) European continents. Study areas include: 2, Kober et al. (2013); 3, Moretti et al. (2013); 4, Baby et al. (2013); 5, Carrera & Muñoz (2013); 6, Iaffa et al. (2013); 7, Carola et al. (2013); 8, Teixell & Babault (2013); 9, Nemčok et al. (2013); 10, Jimenez et al. (2013); 11, Moreno et al. (2013); 12, Tesón et al. (2013); 13, Bayona et al. (2013); 14, Caballero et al. (2013a); 15, Caballero et al. (2013b); 16, Mora et al. (2013); 17, Silva et al. (2013); 18, Hermeston & Nemčok (2013).

Tables

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    Table 1.

    Factors controlling the orogenic deformation

    Factor groupMain factorFactor
    Main engineIndividual plate movement rate
    Overall convergence rate
    Orogen movement sense with respect to mantle flow
    Pro-wedge v. retro-wedge location of the thick-skin region
    Internal factorsRheologies of deforming layers
    Existence v. non-existence of potential detachment horizons
    Occurrence of intrusions
    Presence of basement buttresses
    Crustal (lithospheric) thickness variations
    Thermal regime
    Inherited strength contrasts
    Pre-existing anisotropy
    External factorsSyn-tectonic erosionClimate
    Mean annual precipitation
    Mean annual temperature
    Relief
    Elevation
    Uplift rate
    Rock resistance to erosion
    Syn-tectonic depositionElastic thickness of the foreland plate
    Orogen taper
    Orogen advance rate
    Effectiveness of denudation
    Effectiveness of sediment transport into the basin
    Effectiveness of the sediment distribution system inside the foreland basin
    Gravity resistance against further shortening owing to increasing potential energy of the orogen
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Geological Society, London, Special Publications: 377 (1)
Geological Society, London, Special Publications
Volume 377
2013
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Thick-skin-dominated orogens; from initial inversion to full accretion: an introduction

M. Nemčok, A. Mora and J. Cosgrove
Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 377, 1-17, 8 August 2013, https://doi.org/10.1144/SP377.17
M. Nemčok
1Energy and Geoscience Institute at University of Utah, 423 Wakara Way, Suite 300, Salt Lake City, 84108 UT, USA
2Energy and Geoscience Laboratory at Geological Institute of Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dúbravská cesta 9, SK-840 05 Bratislava, Slovakia
  • Find this author on Google Scholar
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  • Search for this author on this site
  • For correspondence: mnemcok@egi.utah.edu
A. Mora
3Ecopetrol Instituto Colombiano del Petróleo, Km 7 Autopista Bucaramanga-Piedecuesta, Piedecuesta, Santander, Colombia
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J. Cosgrove
4Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine, Prince Consort Road, London SW7 2AZ, UK
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Thick-skin-dominated orogens; from initial inversion to full accretion: an introduction

M. Nemčok, A. Mora and J. Cosgrove
Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 377, 1-17, 8 August 2013, https://doi.org/10.1144/SP377.17
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    • Abstract
    • Dynamic setting categories of thick-skin provinces
    • Choice of optimum case area for a study of the entire development from initial inversion to full accretion
    • The natural laboratory of the Eastern Cordillera, Colombia
    • Challenges and techniques of the Eastern Cordillera studies
    • Concluding remarks
    • Acknowledgments
    • References
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