The spatial and temporal diversification of Early Palaeozoic vertebrates

M. Paul Smith, Philip C. J. Donoghue and Ivan J. Sansom
Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 194, 69-83, 1 January 2002, https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.SP.2002.194.01.06

Abstract

Recent discoveries have dramatically altered traditional views of the stratigraphic distribution and phylogeny of Early Palaeozoic vertebrates and permit a reappraisal of biogeographic patterns and processes over the first 120 million years of vertebrate evolution. Stratigraphic calibration of the phylogenetic trees indicates that most of the pre-Silurian record can be inferred only through ghost ranges. Assessment of the available data suggests that this is due to a shift in ecological niches after the latest Ordovician extinction event and a broadening of geographical range following the amalgamation of Euramerica during the early Silurian. Two major patterns are apparent in the biogeographic data. Firstly, the majority of jawless fishes with dermoskeletal, plated ‘armour’ were highly endemic during Cambrian-Ordovician time, with arandaspids restricted to Gondwana, galeaspids to China, and anatolepids, astraspids and, possibly, heterostracans confined to Laurentia. These Laurentian groups began to disperse to other continental blocks as the ‘Old Red Sandstone continent’ amalgamated through a series of tectonic collisions. The second major pattern, in contrast, encompasses a number of microsquamous and naked, jawed and jawless primitive vertebrates such as conodonts, thelodonts, placoderms, chondrichthyans and acanthodians, which dispersed rapidly and crossed oceanic barriers to attain cosmopolitan distributions, although many have Laurentian origins. A clear difference in dispersal potential exists between these two types of fishes. Overall, the development of biogeographic patterns in Early Palaeozoic vertebrates involved a complex interaction of dispersal, vicariance and tectonic convergence.

References

    1. Afanassieva O.,
    2. Janvier P.
    (1985) Tannuaspis, Tuvaspis and Ilemoraspis, endemic osteostracan genera from the Silurian and Devonian of Tuva and Khakassia (USSR) Geobios 18:493–506.
    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
    1. Larwood G.P.
    1. Aldridge R. J.
    (1988) in Extinction and Survival in the Fossil Record, Extinction and survival in the Conodonta, Systematics Association Special Volume, ed Larwood G.P. 34, pp 231–256.
    OpenUrl
    1. Aldridge R. J.,
    2. Briggs D. E. G.,
    3. Clarkson E. N. K.,
    4. Smith M. P.
    (1986) The affinities of condonts — new evidence from the Carboniferous of Edinburgh, Scotland. Lethaia 19:279–291.
    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
    1. Aldridge R. J.,
    2. Briggs D. E. G.,
    3. Smith M. P.,
    4. Clarkson E. N. K.,
    5. Clark N. D. L.
    (1993) The anatomy of conodonts. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 340:405–421. Series B.
    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
    1. Armstrong H. A.
    (1995) High-resolution biostratigraphy (conodonts and graptolites) of the Upper Ordovician and Lower Silurian — evaluation of the Late Ordovician mass extinction. Modern Geology 20:41–68.
    OpenUrl
    1. Armstrong H. A.,
    2. Owen A. W.
    (2001) Terrane evolution of the paratectonic Caledonides of northern Britain. Journal of the Geological Society, London 158:475–486.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
    1. Crame J. A.,
    2. Owen A. W.
    1. Armstrong H. A.,
    2. Owen A. W.
    (2002) in Palaeobiogeography and Biodiversity Change: the Ordovician and Mesozoic-Cenozoic Radiations, Euconodont diversity changes in a cooling and closing Iapetus Ocean, Geological Society, London, Special Publications, eds Crame J. A., Owen A. W. 194, pp 85–98.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
    1. Astini R. A.,
    2. Benedetto J. L.,
    3. Vaccari N. E.
    (1995) The early Paleozoic evolution of the Argentine Precordillera as a rifted, drifted and collided terrane — A geodynamic model. Geological Society of America Bulletin 107:253–273.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
    1. Bachtadse V.,
    2. Pavlov V. E.,
    3. Kazansky A. Y.,
    4. Tait J.
    (2000) Paleomagnetism of the Tuva Terrane (Russia) — evidence for low latitudes of the Siberian craton in Siluro-Devonian times. Journal of Geophysical Research 105(B6):13,509–13,518.
    OpenUrlCrossRef
    1. Bengtson S.
    (1976) The structure of some Middle Cambrian conodonts, and the early evolution of conodont structure and function. Lethaia 9:185–206.
    OpenUrlCrossRef
    1. Harper D. A. T.
    1. Benton M. J.
    (1999) in Numerical Palaeobiology, The history of life: databases in palaeontology, ed Harper D. A. T. (John Wiley & Sons, Chichester), pp 249–283.
    1. Blieck A.,
    2. Janvier P.
    (1991) Silurian vertebrates. Special Papers in Palaeontology 44:345–389.
    OpenUrl
    1. Bockelie T.,
    2. Fortey R. A.
    (1976) An early Ordovician vertebrate. Nature 260:36–38.
    OpenUrlCrossRef
    1. Chen Jun-Yuan,
    2. Huang Di-Ying,
    3. Li Chia-Wei
    (1999) An early Cambrian craniate-like chordate. Nature 402:518–522.
    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
    1. Cocks L. R. M.
    (2000) The Early Palaeozoic geography of Europe. Journal of the Geological Society, London 157:1–10.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
    1. Cocks L. R. M.
    (2001) Ordovician and Silurian global geography. Journal of the Geological Society, London 158:197–210.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
    1. Cooper R. A.
    (1999) The Ordovician time scale — calibration of graptolite and conodont zones. Acta Universitas Carolinae — Geologica 43(1/2):1–4.
    OpenUrl
    1. Dalla Salda L. H.,
    2. Dalziel I. W. D.,
    3. Cingolani C. A.,
    4. Varela R.
    (1992) Did the Taconic Appalachians continue into southern South America? Geology 20:1059–1062.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
    1. Dalziel I. W. D.
    (1991) Pacific margins of Laurentia and East Antarctica-Australia as a conjugate rift pair: Evidence and implications for an Eocambrian supercontinent. Geology 19:598–601.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
    1. Dalziel I. W. D.
    (1997) Neoproterozoic-Paleozoic geography and tectonics: Review, hypothesis, environmental speculation. Geological Society of America Bulletin 109:16–42.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
    1. Denison R. H.
    (1967) Ordovician vertebrates from Western United States. Fieldiana Geology 16:131–192.
    OpenUrl
    1. Donoghue P. C. J.
    (1998) Growth and patterning in the conodont skeleton. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 353:633–666. Series B.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
    1. Ahlberg P. E.
    1. Donoghue P. C. J.,
    2. Aldridge R. J.
    (2001) in Major Events in Early Vertebrate Evolution: Palaeontology, Phylogeny, Genetics and Development, Origin of a mineralised skeleton, ed Ahlberg P. E. (Taylor & Francis, London), pp 85–105.
    1. Donoghue P. C. J.,
    2. Smith M. P.
    (2001) The anatomy of Turinia pagei (Powrie) and the phylogenetic status of the Thelodonti. Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh: Earth Sciences 92:15–37.
    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
    1. Donoghue P. C. J.,
    2. Forey P. L.,
    3. Aldridge R. J.
    (2000) Conodont affinity and chordate phylogeny. Biological Reviews 75:191–251.
    OpenUrlCrossRef
    1. Droser M. L.,
    2. Bottjer D. J.,
    3. Sheehan P. M.,
    4. McGhee G. R.
    (2000) Decoupling of taxonomic and ecologic severity of Phanerozoic marine mass extinctions. Geology 28:675–678.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
    1. Elliott D. K.,
    2. Blieck A. R. M.,
    3. Gagnier P.-Y.
    (1991) Ordovician vertebrates. Geological Survey of Canada, Paper 90-9:93–106.
    OpenUrl
    1. Elvevold S.,
    2. Escher J. C.,
    3. Frederilsen K. S.,
    4. et al.
    (2000) Danmark og Grønlands Geologiske Undersøgelse, Tectonic architecture of the East Greenland Caledonides 72°–74°30′ N, Rapport, 2000/88.
    1. Erdtmann B.-D.,
    2. Weber B.,
    3. Schultze H.-P.,
    4. Egenhoff S.
    (2000) Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, A possible agnathan plate from the lower Arenig (Lower Ordovician) of south Bolivia, 20, pp 394–399.
    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
    1. Forey P. L.
    (1995) Agnathans recent and fossil, and the origin of jawed vertebrates. Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries 5:267–303.
    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
    1. Forey P. L.,
    2. Janvier P.
    (1993) Agnathans and the origin of jawed vertebrates. Nature 361:129–134.
    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
    1. Forey P. L.,
    2. Janvier P.
    (1994) Evolution of the early vertebrates. American Scientist 82:554–565.
    OpenUrlWeb of Science
    1. Freeman S. R.,
    2. Butler R. W. H.,
    3. Cliff R. A.,
    4. Rex D. C.
    (1998) Direct dating of mylonite evolution: a multi-disciplinary geochronological study from the Moine Thrust Zone, NW Scotland. Journal of the Geological Society, London 155:745–758.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
    1. Gabbott S. E.,
    2. Aldridge R. J.,
    3. Theron J. N.
    (1995) A giant conodont with preserved muscle tissue from the Upper Ordovician of South Africa. Nature 374:800–803.
    OpenUrlCrossRef
    1. Gagnier P. Y.,
    2. Blieck A.,
    3. Rodrigo G.
    (1986) First Ordovician vertebrate from South America. Geobios 19:629–634.
    OpenUrlWeb of Science
    1. Gans C.,
    2. Northcutt R. G.
    (1983) Neural crest and the origin of vertebrates: a new head. Science 220:268–274.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
    1. Gauthier J.,
    2. Kluge A. G.,
    3. Rowe T.
    (1988) Amniote phylogeny and the importance of fossils. Cladistics 4:105–209.
    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
    1. Graffin G.
    (1992) A new locality of fossiliferous Harding Sandstone: evidence for freshwater Ordovician vertebrates. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 12:1–10.
    OpenUrl
    1. Griffith R. W.
    (1994) The life of the first vertebrates. BioScience 44:408–417.
    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
    1. Gutmann W. F.
    (1967) Das Dermalskelett der — fossilen ‘Panzerfische’ funktionell und phylogenetisch interpretiert. Senckenbergiana Lethaea 48:277–283.
    OpenUrl
    1. Gutmann W. F.,
    2. Bonik K.
    (1983) Die Entstehung des Dermalskelettes: Biomechanische Grundbedingungen des fossilen Schuppenpanzers. Senckenbergiana Lethaea 64:179–197.
    OpenUrl
    1. Hallam A.
    (1994) An Outline of Phanerozoic Biogeography (Oxford University Press, Oxford).
    1. Hartz E. B.,
    2. Andresen A.,
    3. Hodges K. V.,
    4. Martin M. W.
    (2001) Syncontractional extension and exhumation of deep crustal rocks in the east Greenland Caledonides. Tectonics 20:58–77.
    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
    1. Higgins A. K.,
    2. Leslie A. G.,
    3. Smith M. P.
    (2001) Neoproterozoic-Lower Palaeozoic stratigraphical relationships in the marginal thinskinned thrust belt of the East Greenland Caledonides: comparisons with the foreland in Scotland. Geological Magazine 138:143–160.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
    1. Hoffman P. F.
    (1991) Did the breakout of Laurentia turn Gondwana inside out? Science 252:1409–1412.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
    1. Holland N. D.,
    2. Chen Jun-Yuan
    (2001) Origin and early evolution of the vertebrates: new insights from advances in molecular biology, anatomy, and palaeontology. Bioessays 23:142–151.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
    1. Janvier P.
    (1996a) Early Vertebrates (Oxford University Press, Oxford).
    1. Janvier P.
    (1996b) The dawn of the vertebrates: characters versus common ascent in the rise of current vertebrate phylogenies. Palaeontology 39:259–287.
    OpenUrlWeb of Science
    1. Karatajūtè-Talimaa V.
    (1996) The Monogolepida: scale structure and systematic position. Geobios Mémoire Spécial 19:35–37.
    OpenUrl
    1. Karatajūtè-Talimaa V.
    (1997) Lugalepis — a new genus of elasmobranchs from Devonian of the western part of the main Devonian field. Geologija 21:24–29.
    OpenUrl
    1. Kumar S.,
    2. Hedges S. B.
    (1998) A molecular timescale for vertebrate evolution. Nature 392:917–920.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
    1. Bassett M.G.,
    2. et al.
    1. McKerrow W. S.,
    2. Dewey J. F.,
    3. Scotese C. R.
    (1991) The Murchison Symposium. Proceedings of an International Conference on the Silurian System Special Papers in Palaeontology, The Ordovician and Silurian development of the Iapetus Ocean, ed Bassett M.G., et al. 44, pp 165–178.
    1. McKerrow W. S.,
    2. Mac Niocaill C.,
    3. Dewey J. F.
    (2000) The Caledonian Orogeny redefined. Journal of the Geological Society, London 157:1149–1154.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
    1. Mac Niocaill C.
    (2000) A new Silurian palaeolatitude for eastern Avalonia and evidence for crustal rotations in the Avalonian margin of southwestern Ireland. Geophysical Journal International 141:661–671.
    OpenUrlCrossRef
    1. Clark D.L.
    1. Miller J. F.
    (1984) in Conodont Biofacies and Provincialism, Cambrian and earliest Ordovician conodont evolution, biofacies, and provincialism, Geological Society of America, Special Papers, ed Clark D.L. 196, pp 43–68.
    OpenUrlCrossRef
    1. Moores E. M.
    (1991) Southwest U.S.-East Antarctica (SWEAT) connection: A hypothesis. Geology 24:917–920.
    OpenUrl
    1. Novacek M. J.,
    2. Wheeler Q. D.
    1. Norell M. A.
    (1992) in Extinction and Phylogeny, Taxic origin and temporal diversity: the effect of Phylogeny, eds Novacek M. J., Wheeler Q. D. (Columbia University Press, New York), pp 89–118.
    1. P’an Jiang,
    2. Lu Liwu.,
    3. Ji Shu’an
    (1996) A brief review of studies on palaeogeography of Middle Paleozoic vertebrates in China. Journal of Southeast Asian Earth Sciences 13:185–190.
    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
    1. Ahlberg P. E.
    1. Purnell M. A.
    (2001) in Major Events in Early Vertebrate Evolution: Palaeontology, Phylogeny, Genetics and Development, Scenarios, selection, and the ecology of early vertebrates, ed Ahlberg P. E. (Taylor & Francis, London), pp 187–208.
    1. Rasmussen J. A.
    (1998) Proceedings of the Sixth European Conodont Symposium (ECOS VI) Palaeontologica Polonica, A reinterpretation of the conodont Atlantic Realm in the late Early Ordovician (Early Llanvirn) 58, pp 67–77.
    OpenUrl
    1. Repetski J. E.
    (1978) A fish from the Upper Cambrian of North America. Science 200:529–531.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
    1. Ritchie A.,
    2. Gilbert-Tomlinson J.
    (1977) First Ordovician vertebrates from the Southern Hemisphere. Alcheringa 1:351–368.
    OpenUrl
    1. Sansom I. J.
    (1996) Pseudooneotodus: a histological study of an Ordovician to Devonian vertebrate lineage. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 118:47–57.
    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
    1. Sansom I. J.,
    2. Smith M. P.,
    3. Armstrong H. A.,
    4. Smith M. M.
    (1992) Presence of the earliest vertebrate hard tissues in conodonts. Science 256:1308–1311.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
    1. Sansom I. J.,
    2. Smith M. P.,
    3. Smith M. M.
    (1994) Dentine in conodonts. Nature 368:591.
    OpenUrlCrossRef
    1. Sansom I. J.,
    2. Smith M. P.,
    3. Smith M. M.,
    4. Turner P.
    (1995) The Harding Sandstone revisited — a new look at some old bones. Geobios 19:57–59.
    OpenUrl
    1. Sansom I. J.,
    2. Smith M. P.,
    3. Smith M. M.
    (1996) Scales of thelodont and shark-like fishes from the Ordovician. Nature 379:628–630.
    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
    1. Sansom I. J.,
    2. Aldridge R. J.,
    3. Smith M. M.
    (2000) A microvertebrate fauna from the Llandovery of South China. Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh: Earth Sciences 90:255–272.
    OpenUrlWeb of Science
    1. Ahlberg P. E.
    1. Sansom I. J.,
    2. Smith M. M.,
    3. Smith M. P.
    (2001) in Major Events in Early Vertebrate Evolution: Palaeontology, Phylogeny, Genetics and Development, The Ordovician radiation of vertebrates, ed Ahlberg P. E. (Taylor & Francis, London), pp 156–171.
    1. Scotese C. R.
    (1986) Phanerozoic reconstructions: a new look at the assembly of Asia. University of Texas Institute for Geophysics Technical Report 66:1–54.
    OpenUrl
    1. McKerrow W. S.,
    2. Scotese C. R.
    1. Scotese C. R.,
    2. McKerrow W. S.
    (1990) in Palaeozoic Palaeogeography and Biogeography, Revised World maps and introduction, Geological Society, London, Memoirs, eds McKerrow W. S., Scotese C. R. 12, pp 1–21.
    OpenUrlCrossRef
    1. Shu D.-G.,
    2. Luo H.-L.,
    3. Conway Morris S.,
    4. et al.
    (1999a) Lower Cambrian vertebrates from south China. Nature 402:42–46.
    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
    1. Shu D.-G.,
    2. Conway Morris S.,
    3. Zhang X.-L.,
    4. Chen L.,
    5. Li Y.,
    6. Han J.
    (1999b) A pipiscid-like fossil from the Lower Cambrian of south China. Nature 400:746–749.
    OpenUrlCrossRef
    1. Simonetta A. M.,
    2. Insom E.
    (1993) New animals from the Burgess Shale (Middle Cambrian) and their possible significance in understanding the Bilateria. Bollettino Zoologica 60:97–107.
    OpenUrl
    1. Smethurst M. A.,
    2. Khramov A. N.,
    3. Torsvik T. H.
    (1998) The Neoproterozoic and Palaeozoic palaeomagnetic data for the Siberian Platform: From Rodinia to Pangea. Earth Science Reviews 43:1–24.
    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
    1. Smith M. M.
    (1991) Putative skeletal neural crest cells in early Late Ordovician vertebrates from Colorado. Science 251:301–303.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
    1. Smith M. M.,
    2. Sansom I. J.
    (1997) Exoskeletal microremains of an Ordovician fish from the Harding Sandstone of Colorado. Palaeontology 40:645–658.
    OpenUrlWeb of Science
    1. Smith M. M.,
    2. Sansom I. J.,
    3. Smith M. P.
    (1995) Diversity of the dermal skeleton in Ordovician to Silurian vertebrate taxa from North America: histology, skeletogenesis and relationships. Geobios 19:65–70.
    OpenUrl
    1. Aldridge R. J.
    1. Smith M. P.,
    2. Briggs D. E. G.,
    3. Aldridge R. J.
    (1987) in Palaeobiology of Conodonts, A conodont animal from the lower Silurian of Wisconsin, USA, and the apparatus architecture of panderodontid conodonts, ed Aldridge R. J. (Ellis Horwood, Chichester), pp 91–104.
    1. Smith M. P.,
    2. Sansom I. J.,
    3. Repetski J. E.
    (1996) Histology of the first fish. Nature 380:702–704.
    OpenUrlCrossRef
    1. Ahlberg P.E.
    1. Smith M. P.,
    2. Sansom I. J.,
    3. Cochrane K. D.
    (2001) in Major Events in Early Vertebrate Evolution: Palaeontology, Phylogeny, Genetics and Development, The Cambrian origin of vertebrates, ed Ahlberg P.E. (Taylor & Francis, London), pp 67–84.
    1. Soehn K. L.,
    2. Wilson M. V. H.
    (1990) A complete, articulated heteostracan from Wenlockian (Silurian) beds of the Delorme Group, Mackenzie Mountains, Northwest Territories, Canada. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 10:405–419.
    OpenUrlCrossRef
    1. Bruton D.L.
    1. Sweet W. C.
    (1984) in Aspects of the Ordovician System, Graphic correlation of upper Middle and Upper Ordovician rocks of the United States Midcontinent, ed Bruton D.L. (Palaeontological Contributions of the University of Oslo), 295, pp 23–35.
    OpenUrl
    1. Sweet W. C.
    (1988) The Conodonta: Morphology, Taxonomy, Paleoecology, and Evolutionary History of a Long-extinct Animal Phylum (Clarendon Press, Oxford).
    1. Thanh Tong-Dzuy,
    2. Phuong Ta Hoa,
    3. Boucot A. J.,
    4. Goujet D.,
    5. Janvier P.
    (1997) Vertébrés siluriens du Viêt-nam central. Comptes rendus de l’Académie des sciences, Série II a 324:1023–1030.
    OpenUrl
    1. Thomas W. A.,
    2. Astini R. A.
    (1996) The Argentine Precordillera: a traveler from the Ouachita Embayment of North American Laurentia. Science 283:752–757.
    OpenUrl
    1. Torsvik T. H.,
    2. Tait J.,
    3. Moralev V. M.,
    4. McKerrow W. S.,
    5. Sturt B. A.,
    6. Roberts D.
    (1995) Ordovician palaeogeography of Siberia and adjacent continents. Journal of the Geological Society, London 152:279–287.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
    1. Torsvik T. H.,
    2. Smethurst M. A.,
    3. Meert J. G.,
    4. et al.
    (1996) Continental break-up and collision in the Neoproterozoic and Palaeozoic — A tale of Baltica and Laurentia. Earth Science Reviews 40:229–258.
    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
    1. Blundell D. J.,
    2. Scott A. C.
    1. van Staal C. R.,
    2. Dewey J. F.,
    3. MacNiocaill C.,
    4. McKerrow W. S.
    (1998) in Lyell: the Past is the Key to the Present, The Cambrian-Silurian tectonic evolution of the northern Appalachians and British Caledonides: history of complex west and southwest Pacific-type segment of Iapetus, Geological Society, London, Special Publications, eds Blundell D. J., Scott A. C. 143, pp 199–242.
    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
    1. Donovan S. K.,
    2. Paul C. R. C.
    1. Wagner P. J.
    (1998) in The Adequacy of the Fossil Record, Phylogenetic analysis and the quality of the fossil record, eds Donovan S. K., Paul C. R. C. (John Wiley & Sons, Chichester), pp 165–187.
    1. Walcott C. D.
    (1892) Preliminary notes on the discovery of a vertebrate fauna in Silurian (Ordovician) strata. Bulletin of the Geological Society of America 3:153–171.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
    1. Wang N. Z.
    (1995) Silurian and Devonian jawless craniates (Galeaspida, Thelodonti) and their habitats in China. Bulletin du Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle, Paris 17:57–84.
    OpenUrl
    1. Wilson J. T.
    (1966) Did the Atlantic close and then re-open? Nature 211:676–681.
    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
    1. McKerrow W. S.,
    2. Scotese C. R.
    1. Young G. C.
    (1991) in Palaeozoic Palaeogeography and Biogeography, Devonian vertebrate distribution patterns and cladistic analysis of palaeogeographic hypotheses, Geological Society, London, Memoirs, eds McKerrow W. S., Scotese C. R. 12, pp 243–255.
    OpenUrl
    1. Long J. A.
    1. Young G. C.
    (1993) in Palaeozoic Vertebrate Biostratigraphy and Biogeography, Vertebrate faunal provinces in the Middle Palaeozoic, ed Long J. A. (Bellhaven Press, London), pp 293–323.
    1. Young G. C.
    (1997) Ordovician microvertebrate remains from the Amadeus Basin, central Australia. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 17:1–25.
    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
Back to top
Alerts
Citation tools
Permissions
View PDF
Email to

Related Articles

Similar Articles

Cited By...