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Articles |
Institute for Coastal Marine Environment, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), Calata Porta di Massa, Porto di Napoli, 80133 Napoli, Italy
* Corresponding author (e-mail: crescenzo.violante{at}iamc.cnr.it)
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Abstract |
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 Top Abstract Sediment transfer at rocky...Catastrophic river floodsSea-cliffsLarge coastal slope failuresHistorical analysisConclusionsReferences |
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According to the coastal zone concept, the term ‘rocky coast’ is used here to denote a spatial zone between the landward limit of marine influence and seaward limit of terrestrial influence (Carter 1988) composed of a rocky substrate retaining at the coastline the form of a cliff with different profiles. This definition includes steep coastal watersheds, pocket beaches situated between bedrock headlands, fan-delta systems, and other non-rocky elements such as barrier spits downdrift of river mouths and estuaries. This term is also suitable for the study of physical changes and related hazard or risk as it includes coastal settlements and human activity.
Rocky coasts occur in a variety of geological settings with a wide range of morphologies depending on rock type, tectonics and climate. Rocky coastal areas can be associated with mountainous regions with active or recent tectonics or volcanic activity, or develop as low-relief cliffs along non-active margins, which limit seaward flattened areas. Steep coasts commonly occur also in glacial environments, such as fjords or lakes. In all these settings, slope instability represents the most effective hazardous process, which can erode and transfer large volumes of materials directly, or via coastal streams, into the sea, lake or fjord. Landslide activity has a significant impact on communities living on the rocky coast, commonly inducing destructive waves and massive sediment transport in short coastal rivers. Material eroded from rocky coasts is mostly delivered in the form of cliff debris, landslide accumulations, coarse-grained deltas and ultimately as fluvial turbiditic flows (hyperpycnal flows). As a result of high-gradient sea-floor topography and often a narrow or non-existent shelf along rocky coasts, the eroded deposits often go straight to the open sea and less frequently, as a wider shelf develops, can be trapped at shallow depth as sandy lobes.
Coastal evolution mainly depends on the balance between sediment availability and wave reworking processes. For rocky coasts, delivery of sediment is typically intermittent, and persistence of the displaced material in the littoral environment as a natural armour for wave action is consequently low. This exposes rocky coasts to an irreversible loss of land over human-scale periods.
The main aims of this study are to discuss the processes of hazardous sediment transfer and accumulation at rocky coasts, and highlight the role of marine geophysical and sedimentological investigations in reconstructing coastal geohazard (Locat & Sanfaçon 2000; Violante et al. 2006). Moreover, it is acknowledged that the use of historical data combined with the above data sources is an important task in this matter, particularly for assessing damage to property and infrastructure.
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Sediment transfer at rocky coast |
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TopAbstractSediment transfer at rocky...Catastrophic river floodsSea-cliffsLarge coastal slope failuresHistorical analysisConclusionsReferences |
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Catastrophic river floods |
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TopAbstractSediment transfer at rocky...Catastrophic river floodsSea-cliffsLarge coastal slope failuresHistorical analysisConclusionsReferences |
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The critical relationship between landslide activity and sediment delivery to slope–stream systems indicates the role of slope erodibility in coastal river floods. In this context, tectonism is of primary importance, as it results in a pattern of rock fractures, oversteepened slopes, and seismic and volcanic activity. Lithology determines both the abundance and capacity of streams to mobilize more or less coarse sediments produced by landslides, as these systems commonly exhibit clast sizes ranging from large boulders to clay. However, human activity, including deforestation for agriculture and housing as well as regulation and defence works, strongly modifies slope features, often with hazardous implications for hydrological and biological equilibria.
Intense slope erosion at rocky coasts is associated with heavy rainfall in zones of limited areal extent where powerful convective cells precipitate large quantities of water in concentrated bursts (Woolhiser & Goodrich 1988; Nouh 1990; Camarasa 1994; Faurés et al. 1995; Anthony & Julian 1999; Belmonte & Beltràn 2001; Esposito et al. 2004a, b) whereas a few kilometres away, it may rain only at low intensity. Hydrological features typically include a few days of steady rains with anomalous high levels of daily totals, followed by a few hours of heavy rain commonly exceeding 200 mm but easily reaching values as high as 400–500 mm (Blair et al. 1985; Baldwin et al. 1987; Martin-Vide et al. 1999; Perez 2001). The slides are often shallow and very wide, extending all the way to the mountain ridge and crest with high sediment transfer to the stream paths (Fig. 4). In these conditions, landslide debris mixed with rising floodwaters can produce fast-moving debris flows of large proportion, which induce further slope instability as a result of strong bank erosion in the valley bottoms. Highly destructive peak-flows with depths as great as 8–10 m (Larsen et al. 2001; Perez 2001; Esposito et al. 2004a, b) are further related to abrupt draining of temporary debris dams formed at narrow valley gorges where the flow backs up to a critical threshold beyond which a translatory wave flood is produced (Fig. 5; see Eliason et al. 2007). Having occurred in a given area, the likelihood of recurrence of such events is usually very high but their confined character makes them highly erratic and does not prevent similar disasters occurring shortly after in nearby areas (Fig. 6 and Table 2).
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Perhaps the most significant flood-induced geological effect at rocky coasts is the deposition of coarse terminal fans at river mouths (Fig. 7). They occur as part of fan-deltaic systems prograding seaward, with large-scale foresets (delta face) passing upwards and landwards to topset segments. Coarse alluvial fans and their subaqueous counterpart indicate that the whole fluvial system acts as a transfer zone where slide debris produced by intense erosional events is rapidly transported to the coast as concentrated flows. As the flows leave the constrictive valleys they quickly decelerate and spread laterally, dumping large quantities of alluvial sediment at sea (Nemec 1990; Nava-Sanchez et al. 1995, 1999; Perez 2001). The resulting shoreline progradation is largely ephemeral, as fluvial discharges are of short duration followed by long periods of non-deposition, so that waves are free to erode alluvial deposits and restore the original conditions to a varying extent.
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The alluvial fan surface can be strongly modified by human activity. Distributary streams flowing on supratidal delta areas are frequently diverted or covered for urban development. This is the case in many villages along the Amalfi coast (southern Italy), where flood-prone streams are artificially forced to flow underneath roads and squares to exploit the whole surface of narrow alluvial deltas. The consequence of this type of urbanization became evident in recent times, when very high river sediment discharges occurring in conjunction with the 25–26 October 1954 cloudburst exploded the artificial cover (Fig. 8) and causing severe damage and loss of life (Lazzari 1954; Penta et al. 1954; Esposito et al. 2004a, b).
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A number of modern underwater delta slopes have been recently investigated using marine geophysical investigations aided by sea-floor sampling (Prior et al. 1981; Ferentinos et al. 1988; Prior & Bornhold 1988, 1989, 1990; Syvistki & Farrow 1989; Nemec 1990; Liu et al. 1995; Nava-Sanchez et al. 1999; Lobo et al. 2006; Sacchi et al. 2009). Interpretation of the marine data shows that sediment dispersal along the subaqueous extensions of alluvial fans is directly related to supply from rivers during floods. Flood-induced density flows have sufficient momentum and concentration to cross the land–water boundary and continue downslope as underflows, bringing river-borne sediment to the shelf and open sea. Subaqueous sediment transfer commonly occurs through chutes and channels developed seawards of main stream mouths, and the sediment is deposited as terminal sand–debris lobes and splays in the pro-delta areas. Thus, river-derived materials entering the sea are primarily stored as prograding foreset at the delta face and then transferred further out into the low-gradient delta-toe zone. Dispersal processes range from mass flows to turbidity currents, depending on the energy of river floods and sea-floor relief or gradient, so that a single event may involve different types of movements along subaqueous slopes. In addition, fine sediments can settle from buoyant plumes, forming pelagic drapes on top of coarse-grained deposits (Fig. 9).
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Sea-cliffs |
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TopAbstractSediment transfer at rocky...Catastrophic river floodsSea-cliffsLarge coastal slope failuresHistorical analysisConclusionsReferences |
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The stability of a rocky coastal slope is greatly influenced by intrinsic geological features that determine material strength and rock mechanics. Lithology, patterns of fractures and faults, and strata attitude can vary significantly also at a local scale, affecting cliff response to wave energy (Allison 1989; Sunamura 1992; Bray & Hooke 1997) and the types of mass movement. Mudflows and rotational slumps regularly develop in soft and weak lithologies, whereas on firm and rocky cliffs rockfalls and topples are predominant (Fig. 15). More resistant lithologies are often characterized by the development of stress-release jointing resulting from a decrease in the confining pressure as cliff retreat proceeds. Such tension cracks can cause a high degree of freedom for block movements, often resulting in toppling failures.
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The study of factors and eroding actions controlling the evolutionary dynamics of sea cliffs (Trehaile 1987; Sunamura 1992, 1997; Griggs 1994) suggest that retreat of coastal slopes largely depends on mechanical wave action. Besides mechanical rock strength, assessment of cliff recession has to take into account all the variables that influence the persistence of cliff-derived deposits or river-borne sediments in the littoral environment in the form of beaches and/or landslide deposits. These parameters commonly vary at a local scale, and sectors with different erosional processes and types of landslide often characterize the evolution of a given rocky coastal area.
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Large coastal slope failures |
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TopAbstractSediment transfer at rocky...Catastrophic river floodsSea-cliffsLarge coastal slope failuresHistorical analysisConclusionsReferences |
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The main consequence of coastal slope collapses is the production of tsunamis as the rock avalanches enter a lake or the sea. The displaced waves can reach several tens to hundreds of metres in height and may propagate for long distances across the sea (Ward 2001), with a destructive impact on coastal areas. Rock avalanches and related tsunamis represent one of the most serious natural hazards in Norway, where more than 170 casualties have occurred in fjord areas in the last century (Blikra et al. 2005). Other examples of well-documented landslide tsunamis are those from the above-mentioned Unzen debris avalanche, which flowed into Ariake Bay and caused more than 11 000 victims, from the Hokkaido coast (Japan) after the collapse of the volcano Oshima-Oshima in 1741 (Satake & Kato 2001), and from Papua New Guinea in July 1998, where the tsunami, probably generated by a submarine slump triggered by an earthquake (Tappin et al. 2001), devastated the nearby coasts causing total destruction and thousands of victims. In the case of Italy, destructive waves of water swept away the villages of Longarone, Pirago, Villanova, Rivalta and Fae after a mountainside collapsed into the Vajont reservoir in northern Italy, causing more than 2000 victims (Müller 1964), and the small village of Scilla in Calabria, southern Italy, where a collapse of a mountain sector along the coast triggered a major tsunami in February 1783 (Fig. 17; Bozzano et al. 2006; Graziani et al. 2006). It has been estimated that of all tsunami events nearly 5% result from volcanic landslides (Smith & Shepherd 1996).
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Tectonic deformation and uplift play a crucial role in the development of threshold conditions for rock slope instability by increasing hillslope inclination or height. Also, tectonic stress along with lithology and weathering intensity exert a major control on geometric and strength characteristics of discontinuities and intact rock, with a profound influence on the stability of rock slopes. As emphasized by numerical simulations (Bhasin & Kaynia 2004), decrease in the residual friction angle along rock discontinuities under active environmental and earthquake conditions is an important factor for sliding and rotation of blocks that may evolve into catastrophic rock avalanches.
Large failure of rock slopes may be triggered by intense rainfall or earthquakes with Richter magnitudes greater than 6.5, or by high pore-water pressures associated with rapid snowmelt (Blodgett et al. 1998; Geertsema et al. 2006). In other cases, triggers are not well known and failure may result from progressive long-term degradation of the tectonically deformed and altered rock mass (Boultbee et al. 2006). With the exception of those collapses occurring in conjunction with large earthquakes, catastrophic slope collapse can naturally evolve from prolonged intervals of accelerating creep phenomena (Voight 1978) as a result of slow rock cracking, normally preceding the failure. The landside event is then related to self-accelerating fractures that are readily catalysed by internal circulating waters and the resultant increase in pore pressure (Kilburn & Petley 2003).
Instability at coastal and island volcanoes
Rocky coasts dominated by volcanic landforms may be built up of lava flows, pyroclastic flows, peninsular and island volcanoes, or calderas. Besides processes of cliff retreat affecting all these coasts, the erosion of volcanic coastal structures and island volcanoes is strongly related to their growth evolution, which is characterized by rapid vertical accretion leading to slope collapse. The mass of accumulated volcanic products resulting from sustained rates of volcanic construction can fail under its own weight, producing structural failure at any scale, from small rock falls of some hundred to a few thousand cubic metres to giant ocean-island megaslides that may involve up to 5000 km3 of material (Moore et al. 1989).
The importance of landslide debris in the internal structure of volcanoes became clear after the climactic eruption of Mt. St. Helens during May 1980 (Lippman & Mullineaux 1981), which focused attention on the tendency of volcanic edifices to undergo lateral collapse. Subsequently, improved submarine imaging techniques revealed large-scale mass-wasting deposits on the slope of ocean island volcanoes such as those of the Hawaiian Ridge, exposed over about 100 000 km2 (Moore et al. 1989), Augustine Island (Beget & Kienle 1992), Reunion (Labazuy 1996), Stromboli (Kokelaar & Romagnoli 1995), the Lesser Antilles arc (Deplus et al. 2001), the Canary Islands (Masson et al. 2002), and Ischia (Chiocci & de Alteriis 2006). Indeed, similar behaviour characterizes subaerial volcanoes, as suggested by the large number of avalanche deposits produced by lateral collapse around volcanic structures in Japan (Inokuchi 1988) and in the Andes (Francis & Wells 1988).
Lateral collapse at coastal and island volcanoes can occur catastrophically in the form of debris avalanches or more slowly as creeping slumps (Moore et al. 1989). These two phenomena include the largest and more dramatic landslides recognized on island slopes, with which, however, intermediate forms of mass wasting such as debris flow and turbidity currents are associated (Weaver et al. 1994; Garcia 1996; Masson et al. 2002; Talling et al. 2007). Slumps can involve great thickness of volcanic material, which may affect an entire flank of a volcanic island to depths as great as 10 km (Hilina slump, Hawaiian Ridge; Moore et al. 1989), have steep scarps at their toes, and have no connection with amphitheatre-like failure scarps. Debris avalanches are relatively thin when compared with slumps, they affect failed sections a few hundred metres to 1 km thick, and are associated with debris deposits with blocky appearance. Whereas debris avalanches and slumps normally are phenomena that cut into volcanic and intrusive rocks on the flanks of volcanic edifices, debris flow affects only the sedimentary cover of submarine slopes and develops over much greater distances (up to 600–700 km; Gee et al. 2001; Masson et al. 2002). Debris flow may occur simultaneously with debris avalanche, as reported on the western slopes of El Hierro and La Palma in the Canary Islands (Masson et al. 1998), or it develops after debris avalanche emplacement, leaving ridges and scours of debris on top of the blocky deposits. The transport of volcanically derived debris into the marine environment may continue downslope in the form of turbidite currents developing far from debris avalanches, which are able to transfer a complex sedimentary assemblage of volcaniclastic and pelagic slope sediments to abyssal plains (Fig. 18; Rothwell et al. 1992; Weaver et al. 1995; Garcia 1996; Talling et al. 2007). Finally, slumps and debris avalanches are not mutually exclusive, debris avalanches may form from disaggregation of oversteepened scarps at the toe of large slumps.
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The high hazard potential of catastrophic debris avalanches is clearly evident when the total volume of a volcanic island is compared with the volume of blocky landslide deposits surrounding its lower submarine slopes. Based on data collected off oceanic islands (Holcomb & Searle 1991), including the western margin of the Canary Islands (Masson et al. 2002) and the submarine slopes of the Hawaiian Islands (Moore et al. 1994), it has been estimated that a single landslide may have been sufficiently large to remove up to 25% of the edifice volume of an island. Some of these major events occurred in prehistoric times, such as at Ischia in the Bay of Naples (Chiocci & de Alteriis 2006; de Alteriis & Violante 2009), at Stromboli in the Aeolian Islands (Tinti et al. 2000) and possibly at Etna on Sicily (Pareschi et al. 2006). Nevertheless, the risk from such landslides seems to be relatively low, as their period of recurrence is of the order of a few hundred thousand years.
Assessment of geological hazard related to catastrophic volcanic collapses must take into account the fact that the present form of a volcanic edifice is the result of complex interaction between the construction forces of volcanic processes and destructive factors causing removal by mass-wasting phenomena. Flanks of oceanic volcanic islands undergo repeated cycles of volcanic construction and failures (Beget & Kienle 1992), as shown by the large aprons of avalanche deposits with a total volume substantially greater than the volume of the relative failure scars. Probabilities of occurrence for instability events are significantly higher in the early stage of growth of a coastal or island volcano, when sector collapse is driven by higher rates of volcanic production.
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Historical analysis |
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TopAbstractSediment transfer at rocky...Catastrophic river floodsSea-cliffsLarge coastal slope failuresHistorical analysisConclusionsReferences |
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Nevertheless, in statistical terms, the use of historical data is considered an informal method. Problems in the use of data from historical documents can arise from a greater availability of information in more recent times, which causes an increase in the frequency of reported geohazards. In the last few decades, enhanced accuracy in the documentation process and the greater presence of elements exposed to damage have led to increased documentation of minor events, whereas in the early 20th century and before small events were reported only occasionally. Another factor that may contribute to a selective availability of data on past geohazards concerns the conservation of historical information, which increases with the magnitude of the event. In particular, incorporation of archival data into frequency estimates has to take into account that past information usually records major phenomena, such that the historical record represents an incomplete catalogue of events, usually of unknown specific magnitude.
The format of historical documentary sources is likely to be highly variable. Information on past geohazards can be obtained from a number of sources including public record office collections, chronicles, ecclesiastical records, scientific, academic and engineering journals, newspapers, private collections and the World Wide Web. Valuable data sources refer to photographic documents (see Figs 5, 7 and 8), large-scale topographic maps (see Fig. 17), aerial photographs (see Figs 4 and 5) and repeated field measurements. Such information also tends to be of varying reliability and subject to manipulation. It is therefore important to distinguish fact from legend, as documents frequently contain erroneous and misleading information (Bell & Ogilvie 1978).
Historical aerial photography and maps have been used to study long-term sea-cliff retreat over periods of tens of years to a century (Moore et al. 1999). Shoreline retreat rates can be quantified using the landward migration of the top edge of the cliff by comparing a cliff edge digitized from historical maps with a recent cliff edge interpreted from Lidar (Light Detection and Ranging) topographic surveys (Hapke et al. 2007) or from recent aerial photography. Cliff retreat rates resulting from these methods represent conditions from a given period of time and yield amounts of cumulative retreat that are unsuitable for predicting future cliff edge positions or rates of retreats. Estimates of future retreat have to consider the effect of influencing factors such as sea-level rise (Bray & Hooke 1997), construction and existence of armouring at the cliff base, and human activities, which may strongly affect the degree of protection at the cliff toe or volume of infiltrating waters.
Historical documents from different sources combined with field data can be used to reconstruct the areal distribution of the geological effects and damage induced by catastrophic stream flows occurring in small, steep coastal watersheds (Fig. 22; Esposito et al. 2004b; Porfido et al. 2009). Especially in these settings, the finding of slack-water deposits (Fig. 23) as palaeoflood indicators accumulated in zones of low-energy flow conditions at the valley margin can be used to reconstruct the magnitude and frequency of large floods that occurred before the establishment of instrumental stations (Baker & Kochel 1988; Benito et al. 2003). However, short steep streams are commonly poorly monitored or not monitored at all, as they are often dry with long periods of apparent stability, and the use of historical sources is often the only means for hazard assessment and the determination of related risk arising from very high urbanization rates mostly concentrated at a river mouth.
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Conclusions |
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TopAbstractSediment transfer at rocky...Catastrophic river floodsSea-cliffsLarge coastal slope failuresHistorical analysisConclusionsReferences |
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The marine areas of rocky coasts are typically characterized by high gradients, low width and abrupt continental margins, with submarine canyons close to the shoreline. In these environments, material produced by mass movements is delivered at intermittent time intervals, in the form of cliff debris, landslide deposits, coarse-grained deltas and sandy tabular bodies resulting from fluvial turbiditic flows. The combination of steep continental shelves, which are unable to dissipate wave energy, and episodic coastal supply prevents a stable beach profile being maintained, although significant beach areas can develop at the cliff toes owing to locally reduced bathymetric gradients. Lack of extensive coastal plains along rocky coasts is further due to the capture of sand at the heads of submarine canyons, so that it is carried out of the coastal system to the deep sea.
Low persistence of protective materials in the littoral environment exposes rocky coasts to erosion by hydrodynamic forces, thus producing an irreversible loss of land. However, long periods of no deposition and apparent stability induce people and even authorities to forget the nature and risks of events of rapid sediment transfers, particularly for poorly monitored coastal streams. For these reasons, the combination of marine and historical investigations is crucial to identify hazard-related geological processes and to recognize geologically sensitive rocky coastal areas (Fig. 24).
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References |
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TopAbstractSediment transfer at rocky...Catastrophic river floodsSea-cliffsLarge coastal slope failuresHistorical analysisConclusionsReferences |
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