|
Restraining bends, transpressional deformation and basement controls on development |
1 Institute for Geophysics, Jackson School of Geosciences, 4412 Spicewood Springs Road, Bldg 600, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas, 78759, USA (e-mail: paulm{at}ig.utexas.edu)
2 Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Wisconsin, 1215 West Dayton Street, Madison, WI 53706, USA
3 Earthquake/Seismic Unit, Department of Geography and Geology, University of West Indies, Mona, Kingston 7, Jamaica, West Indies
 |
Abstract |
|---|
 Top Abstract Regional significance of...Tectonic origin of restraining...Tectonic and geological setting...Historic and modern seismicity...Initial GPS results for...Implications of GPS results...DiscussionReferences |
|---|
|
Regional significance of restraining bends |
|---|
|
TopAbstractRegional significance of...Tectonic origin of restraining...Tectonic and geological setting...Historic and modern seismicity...Initial GPS results for...Implications of GPS results...DiscussionReferences |
|---|
|
A similar, undulating strike-slip fault pattern composed of adjacent or paired restraining and releasing bends is present along the northern Caribbean plate boundary zone (Fig. 1b). This interplate strike-slip boundary consists of a 100–250-km-wide, seismogenic zone of mainly left-lateral strike-slip deformation extending over 3000 km along the northern edge of the Caribbean plate (Burke et al. 1980; Calais & Mercier de Lepinay 1990). Prominent restraining bends occur on the islands of Hispaniola (Mann et al. 2002) and Jamaica (Mann et al. 1985; Rosencrantz & Mann, 1991) (Fig. 2), near the Swan Islands of Honduras along the southern edge of the Cayman Trough (Mann et al. 1991), and in northern Central America (Mann & Gordon 1996). Several of these areas constitute paired bends with the familiar undulating fault shape that juxtaposes restraining and releasing bends (Mann 2007) (Fig. 1b).
|
|
Tectonic origin of restraining bends |
|---|
|
TopAbstractRegional significance of...Tectonic origin of restraining...Tectonic and geological setting...Historic and modern seismicity...Initial GPS results for...Implications of GPS results...DiscussionReferences |
|---|
In this paper we describe the regional fault pattern, geological setting, and active fault kinematics of Jamaica, from published geological maps, earthquakes and GPS-based geodesy, in order to gain a better understanding of the Jamaican fault restraining bend. Evolution of the restraining-bend faults in Jamaica has important implications for the assessment of seismic risk on this rugged, 10 991 km2 island with a population of 2.6 million and a long historical record of destructive earthquakes and tsunamis (Wiggins-Grandison & Atakan 2005). An understanding of the present-day stage of restraining-bend development in Jamaica would improve our conceptual basis for understanding those Jamaican faults that might be the source of future large earthquakes.
|
Tectonic and geological setting of the Jamaican restraining bend |
|---|
|
TopAbstractRegional significance of...Tectonic origin of restraining...Tectonic and geological setting...Historic and modern seismicity...Initial GPS results for...Implications of GPS results...DiscussionReferences |
|---|
The island of Jamaica is one of only two places where strike-slip faults that carry Caribbean–North America–Gonave microplate motion come onshore in the Greater Antilles islands of the northern Caribbean (Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola and Puerto Rico) (Fig. 1b). The second place is the neighbouring island of Hispaniola (Haiti and Dominican Republic) where large strike-slip faults are well exposed and can be traced as continuous features for most of the length of the island (Mann et al. 1995; Mann et al. 1998) (Figs 1b & 2).
Located in the northern Caribbean Sea at the NW end of the Nicaragua Rise, Jamaica consists of an emergent Cretaceous-age oceanic volcanic arc and volcanogenic sedimentary rocks, overlain by 5–7 km of Tertiary carbonate rocks (Lewis & Draper 1990). Seismic velocities yield an island-arc crustal thickness of 25–30 km, with most locally recorded earthquakes concentrated from depths of 15 to 30 km (Wiggins-Grandison 2003, 2004) (Fig. 3).
|
Topographic and geological setting
The Jamaican restraining bend consists of a topographically uplifted area in eastern Jamaica that is bounded at its southern edge by the Enriquillo–Plantain Garden Fault, a transitional area of lower topography in western Jamaica, and an offshore releasing bend, or pull-apart basin, along the Walton fault zone (Rosencrantz & Mann 1991). The West Jamaica releasing bend forms where the plate boundary curves towards a more east–west trend (Figs 1b & 2). Mann et al. (1985) and Mann et al. (1990) propose that two Palaeogene rifts – that are highly oblique to the EW direction of active plate motion – may be the crustal features responsible for diverting the intersecting plate boundary strike-slip faults from their expected east–west strike directions parallel to the small circles of rotation about the Caribbean pole of rotation (DeMets et al. 2000).
In western and central Jamaica, the landscape forms a relatively flat, elevated plateau that exposes karsted Oligocene–Miocene carbonate rocks (Fig. 2b). Faults form prominent scarps in these carbonate lithologies and exhibit topographic relief up to 600 m (Horsfield 1974; Wadge & Dixon 1984; Mann et al. 1985) (Fig. 2b). The Palaeogene rifts are subsurface features known from oil exploration both on and offshore of Jamaica (Arden 1975), but in eastern Jamaica, the Wagwater Rift is completely inverted by reverse faulting along its former normal-faulted margins, and elevated into a mountain range (Mann et al. 1985; Mann & Burke 1990) (Fig. 2c). Reaching 2.5 km above sea-level, the steep-sided Blue Mountain restraining bend is directly adjacent to the deformed Wagwater Belt and dominates the island's topography and seismicity (Fig. 3d). Its anomalously high elevation and enhanced seismic activity indicate that the Blue Mountains may continue to play an important role in transferring a significant part of the strike-slip displacement northward across the Jamaican restraining bend.
|
Historic and modern seismicity of Jamaica |
|---|
|
TopAbstractRegional significance of...Tectonic origin of restraining...Tectonic and geological setting...Historic and modern seismicity...Initial GPS results for...Implications of GPS results...DiscussionReferences |
|---|
Teleseisms and relocated microseisms are concentrated primarily along the geomorphically prominent Blue Mountain restraining bend of eastern Jamaica (Fig. 2b), but earthquakes also occur along other topographically prominent faults in the central and western areas of the island (Burke et al. 1980; Wadge & Dixon 1984; Mann et al. 1985) (Fig. 3). Nearly all relocated earthquakes are found between depths of 12 and 27 km, remarkably deep in comparison with continental settings such as northern and central California, where almost all seismicity is confined above crustal depths of 11–12 km (e.g. Castillo & Ellsworth 1993). Focal mechanisms reveal an island dominated by east–west-directed, left-lateral shear with a lesser north–south convergent component (Wiggins-Grandison 2003; Wiggins-Grandison & Atakan 2005). These focal mechanisms are in excellent agreement with our new GPS velocity field and roughly east–west-trending fold axes that affect the Cretaceous and Tertiary stratigraphic section on the island (e.g. Lewis & Draper 1990).
|
Initial GPS results for the period 1999–2005 |
|---|
|
TopAbstractRegional significance of...Tectonic origin of restraining...Tectonic and geological setting...Historic and modern seismicity...Initial GPS results for...Implications of GPS results...DiscussionReferences |
|---|
|
Figure 4 shows our most recent GPS velocity field after removing the motion of the Caribbean plate predicted by an angular velocity vector that best fits the velocities of 15 sites in the Caribbean plate interior (DeMets et al. 2007). Several useful conclusions can be drawn from the GPS velocity field independent of any modelling. One first-order conclusion is that none of Jamaica moves as part of the Caribbean plate interior (Fig. 4). GPS sites instead move westward relative to the Caribbean plate at a maximum rate of 8±1 mm/a, representing a minimum estimate for Gonave microplate motion relative to the Caribbean plate (Fig. 1b). GPS site directions are uniformly parallel to the southern boundary of the Gonave microplate, indicating that this boundary is dominated by active left-lateral shear as predicted from geological and geomorphological studies (Burke et al. 1980; Wadge & Dixon 1984; Mann et al. 1985) (Fig. 2b & c).
The velocity field exhibits significant gradients from NNE–SSW and ENE–WSW (Fig. 4), indicating that deformation is two-dimensional. These gradients are a likely consequence of distributed elastic strain from one or more locked faults that transfer slip across the restraining bend. Finally, our data provisionally suggest the existence of a GPS velocity gradient of 2±1 mm/a across the topographically high and seismically active Blue Mountain restraining bend (Fig. 4).
|
Implications of GPS results for specific faults in Jamaica |
|---|
|
TopAbstractRegional significance of...Tectonic origin of restraining...Tectonic and geological setting...Historic and modern seismicity...Initial GPS results for...Implications of GPS results...DiscussionReferences |
|---|
Modelling will be required to determine whether the data can be used to distinguish between alternative deformation models or possibly a simple single-fault model in which most fault slip is concentrated along faults in central Jamaica. Our data do not appear to be consistent with a model in which faults in the Blue Mountain restraining bend of eastern Jamaica transfer most or all slip from the Plantain Garden fault northward to the Duanvale and Fat Hog Quarters faults along the northern coast of Jamaica, as suggested by Mann et al. (1985) (Fig. 2a). Given the topographic and seismic prominence of the Blue Mountains, as well as the prevalence of fault scarps affecting carbonate rocks of Oligocene–Miocene age in the west-central area of Jamaica (Wadge & Dixon 1984) (Fig. 2b & c), this conclusion is an unexpected result (Fig. 2b).
Within the uncertainties, the GPS velocity field (Fig. 4a) and its associated gradients (Fig. 4b) permit partitioning of slip between the east–west-trending Duanvale fault of northern Jamaica; the Crawle River fault zone of central Jamaica; and the South Coast Fault of southern Jamaica (Fig. 2a). Smaller velocity uncertainties are needed to determine whether sudden changes in GPS velocities coincide with any of these faults, as might be expected if any of them are creeping. If, as seems more likely, the faults are locked, then careful modelling will be required to define the range of slip rates and models that are capable of describing the observed site velocities.
From syntheses of satellite imagery and field mapping, various tectonic models have been proposed for Jamaica, including:
|
Discussion |
|---|
|
TopAbstractRegional significance of...Tectonic origin of restraining...Tectonic and geological setting...Historic and modern seismicity...Initial GPS results for...Implications of GPS results...DiscussionReferences |
|---|
|
|
In our proposed model, the initial stage of paired-bend development occurs when the east–west-striking Enriquillo–Plantain Garden fault zone propagates westward into the Jamaican region and encounters the NE-trending Wagwater and Newport–Montpelier rifts of Palaeogene age (Fig. 5a). The formation of the Enriquillo–Plantain Garden fault zone is attributed to the Miocene–Recent collision between the leading edge of the Caribbean plate in Hispaniola and the Bahama carbonate platform (Mann et al. 1995) (Fig. 2a). Formation of the Enriquillo–Plaintain Garden Fault led to the detachment of the Gonave microplate from the NE corner of the Caribbean plate (Fig. 2a). Intersection of the east–west-striking Enriquillo Plantain Garden strike-slip fault with the Wagwater Rift of eastern Jamaica is proposed to have led to its Early to Middle Miocene–Recent inversion and the deviation of the fault trace to a more NW curvature of the fault in eastern Jamaica (Fig. 5b).
A widespread unconformity of Early Miocene age in the carbonate section of Jamaica may date the onset of convergent deformation and uplift in this part of the island (Eva & McFarlane 1979). Green (1977) suggested that continued uplift and strike-slip faulting in eastern Jamaica is marked by a Late–Middle Miocene unconformity. Along the NE coast of Jamaica near Buff Bay, an abrupt facies change occurs between white chalky limestone and grey or brown marl of Late Miocene age (Blow 1969). This facies change may reflect the early inversion of the Wagwater Rift and uplift of the Blue Mountain part of the restraining bend. From the Late Miocene to the present day, uplift has been progressively propagating westward, as shown by the east to west gradient in topographic and erosional level (Fig. 2a). Miocene to Pliocene carbonate rocks around the periphery of the Blue Mountains become progressively conglomeratic in character, and reflect the continued and perhaps accelerated Late Neogene uplift of the Blue Mountains segment of the restraining bend (Horsfield 1974; Mann et al. 1985) (Fig. 2a & c).
As the Blue Mountain restraining bend developed, we envision activity along faults in the north-central part of Jamaica, such as the Duanvale fault zone (Figs 2a & 7c). The Duanvale Fault would link the Jamaican restraining bend in eastern Jamaica to the West Jamaica releasing bend (Fig. 2a). In the offshore area of western Jamaica, Rosencrantz & Mann (1991) mapped recent seafloor fault-breaks roughly parallel to the Duanvale fault-zone. Due to a lack of core data and high-quality seismic-reflection profiles, we have no direct constraints on the age of initiation of the West Jamaica releasing bend but, based on the paired-bend concept, we would predict its age of initiation to be roughly that of the Miocene Blue Mountain uplift, or Early to Middle Miocene.
|
Earthquakes (Fig. 3) and GPS results (Fig. 4) provide us with insights into how the Jamaican paired bend has continued to evolve to the present day. Recorded seismicity is focused on the area where the Enriquillo-Plantain Garden fault zone intersects the Wagwater inverted rift (Fig. 4). However, a band of earthquakes along the southern coast of the island, along with GPS results, indicates that some left-lateral shearing is accommodated along the southern – rather than northern – parts of the island (Fig. 4). This southern band of east–west-trending seismicity suggests that the previously formed bend structures to the north may be in the initial stages of bypass by the South Coast fault zone, as shown schematically in Figure 5d. Bypass is likely to be a gradual process.
Tectonic comparison with the southern California restraining bend
The San Bernardino restraining bend of the southern San Andreas Fault (Fig. 1a) makes an interesting tectonic comparison with the restraining-bend tectonics that we have described in Jamaica (Fig. 6a & b). In southern California, the San Bernardino restraining-bend fault is associated with 3.5-km-high topography. As in the Blue Mountains of eastern Jamaica, the restraining-bend uplift is domal with a very steep, fault-bounded southern edge and a more inclined and gently dipping northern flank (Fig. 6a & b). Palaeoseismological (Matti & Morton 1993) and shorter-term GPS-based studies (Bennett et al. 2004) have shown that the curved and topographically elevated San Bernardino and Indio segments of the San Andreas fault zone are progressively ceding slip to the straighter and topographically lower San Gabriel fault zone. These displacement-rate studies have shown that a change in the slip rate on one fault is matched by an equal and opposite change in the rate on the other (Bennett et al. 2004). Hence, there is strong evidence for some level of trade-off, or co-dependence, between the two fault zones. Increased slip transfer will lead to faster slip on the San Jacinto Fault, and eventual abandonment of the San Bernardino restraining bend of the southern San Andreas fault zone. This shift may explain the marked difference in seismic strain between the two faults: the San Jacinto Fault has ruptured in several M>6 earthquakes in the last century, whereas the southernmost San Andreas fault has been remarkably quiescent.
How did the San Bernardino restraining bend nucleate to create the eventual bypass of motion on to the San Jacinto fault zone? To our knowledge, there is no comparable crustal feature like the Wagwater Rift that might have originally led to the curving trace of the San Gabriel fault zone. Swanson (2005) proposed that fault-zone adhesion or increased friction (in the absence of any pre-existing crustal structure) has led to the formation of a 150-km-long and 30-km-wide ‘sidewall ripout’ structure bounded by the straight San Andreas Fault to the NE and the curved San Gabriel Fault to the SW.
In Jamaica, the geomorphology of the bend area indicates a higher degree of cross-fault relays than in the case of the San Andreas and San Jacinto fault zones (Fig. 6b). On Figure 6b we have marked six, prominent fault-bounded elevations as ‘R’, or possible relays in which active motion is transferred at stepovers between parallel fault strands. If these relay zones are indeed active, as suggested by their morphology, this observation would indicate that the Jamaican restraining bend is still functioning and has not reached the advanced stage of bypass that has currently been attained by the San Bernardino bend of southern California.
Implications for seismic hazard studies
The proposed model has direct implications for the seismic hazards posed to Jamaica's 2.6 million inhabitants. Figure 7 shows the geographical distribution of the number of times per century that intensities of modified Mercalli VI or greater have been reported in Jamaica from 1880 to 1960 (Shepherd & Aspinall 1980). Like the pattern of recorded seismicity seen on Figure 3, there are higher concentrations of historical earthquakes in the area of the inverted Wagwater Rift of eastern Jamaica and in the subsurface Montpelier Rift of western Jamaica. The close spatial association of the pattern of historical seismicity indicates that these crustal features are an important control on the evolution of the Jamaican restraining bend and on the control of present-day earthquakes (Wiggins-Grandison & Atakan 2005).
A key question is whether areas most affected by the destructive earthquakes of 1692 and 1907 were along the approximate eastern projection of the South Coast fault zone, or, alternatively, whether these large earthquakes were related to faulting either in the Wagwater Belt or the adjacent Blue Mountains (Fig. 7). The former scenario would argue for a more advanced bypass stage in restraining-bend evolution (cf. Fig. 5d), while the latter scenario would argue for the continued transfer of slip from the Enriquillo–Plantain Garden fault zone to more northerly faults like the Crawle River and Duanvale fault zones (Fig. 2A). A key avenue of future research will be to identify the presence of Late Holocene faults in both zones, in order to gauge their present level of activity along with their Holocene palaeoseismology.
|
Acknowledgments |
|---|
|
References |
|---|
|
TopAbstractRegional significance of...Tectonic origin of restraining...Tectonic and geological setting...Historic and modern seismicity...Initial GPS results for...Implications of GPS results...DiscussionReferences |
|---|
Arden, D. D., Jr. 1975. Geology and the Nicaragua Rise. In: Nairn, E. E. M. & Stehli, F. H. (eds) The Ocean Basins and Margins, Vol. 3, Plenum, New York, 617–661.
Bennett, R. A., Friedrich, A. M. & Furlong, K. P. 2004. Codependent histories of the San Andreas and San Jacinto fault zones from inversion of fault displacement rates. Geology, 32, 961–964.
Blow, W. H. 1969. Late middle Eocene to Recent planktonic foraminiferal biostratigraphy. In: Bronnimann, P. & Renz, H. H. (eds) Proceedings, International Conference on Planktonic Microfossils, Geneva 1967, Volume 1, 199–421.
Bridwell, R. 1975. Sinuosity of strike-slip fault traces. Geology, 3, 630–632.
Burke, K., Grippi, J. & Sengor, A. M. C. 1980. Neogene structures in Jamaica and the tectonic style of the northern Caribbean plate boundary zone. Journal of Geolology, 88, 375–386.
Calais, E. & Mercier de Lepinay, B. 1990. A natural model of active transpressional tectonics: the en echelon structures of the Oriente Deep along the northern Caribbean transcurrent plate boundary (southern Cuba margin). Revue de L'Institut Francais du Petrole, 45, 147–160.
Calais, E., Mazabraud, Y. Mercier de Lepinay, B. Mann, P. Mattioli, G. & Jansma, P. 2002. Strain partitioning and fault slip rates in the northeastern Caribbean from GPS measurements. Geophysical Research Letters, 106, 1–9.
Castillo, D. A. & Ellsworth, W. L. 1993. Seismotectonics of the San Andreas fault system between Point Arena and Cape Mendocino in northern California: implications for the development and evolution of a young transform. Journal of Geophysical Research, 98, 6543–6560.[GeoRef]
Crowell, J. C. 1974. Sedimentation along the San Andreas Fault, California. In: Dott, R. H., Jr. & Shaver, R. H. (eds) Modern and Ancient Geosynclinal Sedimentation. Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists Special Publications, 19, 292–303.
Cunningham, W. D. 2007. Structural and topographic characteristics of restraining bend mountain ranges of the Altai, Gobi Altai and easternmost Tien Shan. In: Cunningham, W. D. & Mann, P. (eds) Tectonics of Strike-Slip Restraining and Releasing Bends, Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 290, 219–237.
DeMets, C. & Wiggins-Grandison, M. 2007. Deformation of Jamaica and motion of the Gonave microplate from GPS and seismic data. Geophysical Journal International, 168, 362–378, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-246X.2006.03236X.[CrossRef][Web of Science][GeoRef]
DeMets, C., Mattioli, G. Jansma, P. Rogers, R. Tenorio, C. & Turner, H. L. 2007. Present motion and deformation of the Caribbean plate: constraints from new GPS geodetic measurements from Honduras and Nicaragua. In: Mann, P. (ed.) Geologic and Tectonic Development of the Caribbean Plate in Northern Central America, Geological Society of America Special Paper, 428, Geological Society of America, Boulder, CO doi: 10.1130/2007.2428(02).
DeMets, C., Gordon, R. Argus, D. & Stein, S. 1994. Effect of recent revisions of the geomagnetic reversal timescale on estimates of current plate motions. Geophysical Research Letters, 21, 2191–2194.[CrossRef][Web of Science][GeoRef]
DeMets, C., Jansma, P. E. et al. 2000. GPS geodetic constraints on Caribbean–North America plate motion. Geophysical Research Letters, 27, 437–440.[CrossRef][Web of Science][GeoRef]
Dixon, T. H., Farina, F. DeMets, C. Jansma, P. Mann, P. & Calais, E. 1998. Relative motion between the Caribbean and North American plates and related boundary zone deformation from a decade of GPS observations. Journal of Geophysical Research, 103, 15 157–15 182.[CrossRef]
Eva, A. N. & McFarlane, N. 1979. Tertiary to early Quaternary facies relationships in Jamaica [abstract]. 4th Latin American Geological Congress, Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago.
Green, G. W. 1977. Structure and stratigraphy of the Wagwater Belt, Jamaica. Overseas Geology and Mineral Resources, 48, p. 21.
Horsfield, W. 1974. Major faults in Jamaica. Journal of the Geological Society of Jamaica, 14, 31–38.
Lewis, J. & Draper, G. 1990. Geology and tectonic evolution of the northern Caribbean margin. In: Dengo, G. & Case, J. E. (eds) The Geology of North America, Vol. H. The Caribbean Region, 77–140. Geological Society of America, Boulder, CO.
Mann, P. 2007. Global catalogue, classification, and tectonic origin of restraining- and releasing bends on active and ancient strike-slip fault systems. In: Cunningham, W. D. & Mann, P. (eds) Tectonics of Strike-Slip Restraining and Releasing Bends, Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 290, 13–142.
Mann, P. & Burke, K. 1990. Transverse intra-arc rifting – Paleogene Wagwater belt, Jamaica. Marine and Petroleum Geology, 7, 410–427.[CrossRef][Web of Science][GeoRef]
Mann, P. & Gordon, M. 1996. Tectonic uplift and exhumation of blueschist belts along transpressional strike-slip fault zones. In: Bebout, G., Scholl, D., Kirby, S. & Platt, J. (eds) Dynamics of Subduction Zones, 96, American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC, 143–154, Geophysical Monographs.
Mann, P., Calais, E. Ruegg, J.-C. DeMets, C. Jansma, P. & Mattioli, G. S. 2002. Oblique collision in the northeastern Caribbean from GPS measurements and geological observations. Tectonics, 37, 0.1029/2001TC001304.
Mann, P., Draper, G. & Burke, K. 1985. Neotectonics of a strike-slip restraining bend system, Jamaica. In: Biddle, K. & Christie-Blick, N. (eds) Strike-Slip Deformation, Basin Formation, and Sedimentation, SEPM Special Publications, 37, 211–226.
Mann, P., Prentice, C. S. Burr, G. Pena, L. R. & Taylor, F. W. 1998. Tectonic geomorphology and paleoseismology of the Septentrional fault system, Dominican Republic. In: Dolan, J. F. & Mann, P. (eds) Active Strike-slip and Collisional Tectonics of the Northern Caribbean Plate Boundary Zone, Geological Society of America Special Paper, 326, 63–123.
Mann, P., Rosencrantz, E. & Tyburski, S. 1991. Neogene development of the Swan Islands restraining-bend complex, Caribbean Sea. Geology, 19, 823–826.
Mann, P., Schubert, C. & Burke, K. 1990. Review of Caribbean neotectonics. In: Dengo, G. & Case, J. E. (eds) The Geology of North America, Volume H, The Caribbean Region. Geological Society of America, Boulder, CO, 307–338.
Mann, P., Taylor, F. W. Edwards, R. L. & Ku, T. 1995. Actively evolving microplate formation by oblique collision and sideways motion along strike-slip faults: an example from the northeastern Caribbean plate margin. Tectonophysics, 246, 1–69.[CrossRef][Web of Science][GeoRef]
Mao, A., Harrison, C. G. A. & Dixon, T. H. 1990. Noise in GPS coordinate time series. Journal of Geophysical Research, 104, 2797–2816.
Matti, J. C. & Morton, D. M. 1993. Paleogeographic evolution of the San Andreas fault in southern California: a reconstruction based on a new cross fault correlation. In: Crouch, J. K. & Bachman, S. B. (eds) Tectonics and Sedimentation Along the California Margin: Pacific Section, SEPM Special Publications, 38, 1–16.
Rosencrantz, E. & Mann, P. 1991. SeaMARC II mapping of transform faults in the Cayman Trough, Caribbean Sea. Geology, 19, 690–693.
Shepherd, J. & Aspinall, W. 1980. Seismicity and seismic intensities in Jamaica, West Indies: a problem in risk assessment. Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics, 8, 315–355.[CrossRef]
Swanson, M. 2005. Geometry and kinematics of adhesive wear in brittle strike-slip fault zones. Journal of Structural Geology, 27, 871–887.[CrossRef][Web of Science][GeoRef]
Wadge, G. & Dixon, T. H. 1984. A geological interpretation of SEASAT–SAR imagery of Jamaica. Journal of Geology, 92, 561–581.[Web of Science][GeoRef]
Weber, J. C., Dixon, T. H. DeMets, C. Ambeh, W. B. Jansma, P. Mattioli, G. Saleh, J. Sella, G. Bilham, R. & Perez, O. 2001. GPS estimate of relative motion between the Caribbean and South American plates, and geologic implications for Trinidad and Venezuela. Geology, 29, 75–78.
Wiggins-Grandison, M. D. 2001. Preliminary results from the new Jamaica seismograph network. Seismological Research Letters, 72, 525–537.[GeoRef]
Wiggins-Grandison, M. D. 2003. Advances in Jamaican seismology. Dr. Scient. Thesis, University of Bergen, Norway, 150.
Wiggins-Grandison, M. D. 2004. Simultaneous inversion for local earthquake hypocenters, station corrections, and 1-D velocity model of the Jamaican crust. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 224, 229–240.[CrossRef][Web of Science][GeoRef]
Wiggins-Grandison, M. D. & Atakan, K. 2005. Seismotectonics of Jamaica. Geophysical Journal International, 160, 573–580.[CrossRef][Web of Science][GeoRef]
Wiggins-Grandison, M. D., Kebeasy, T. R. M. & Husebye, E. S. 2003. Enhanced earthquake risk of Kingston due to wave field excitation in the Liguanea Basin, Jamaica, Caribbean. Journal of Earth Science, 37, 21–32.
Zumberge, J. F., Heflin, M. B. Jefferson, D. C. Watkins, M. M. & Webb, F. H. 1997. Precise point positioning for the efficient and robust analysis of GPS data from large networks. Journal of Geophysical Research, 102, 5005–5017.[CrossRef][GeoRef]
This article has been cited by other articles:
 |
|
 |
|
  P. Mann Global catalogue, classification and tectonic origins of restraining- and releasing bends on active and ancient strike-slip fault systems Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 2007; 290: 13 - 142. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
